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Compare Zimbabwe (2005) - Eritrea (2001)

Compare Zimbabwe (2005) z Eritrea (2001)

 Zimbabwe (2005)Eritrea (2001)
 ZimbabweEritrea
Administrative divisions 8 provinces and 2 cities* with provincial status; Bulawayo*, Harare*, Manicaland, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Masvingo, Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South, Midlands 8 provinces (singular - awraja); Akale Guzay, Barka, Denkel, Hamasen, Sahil, Semhar, Senhit, Seraye

note:
in May 1995 the National Assembly adopted a resolution stating that the administrative structure of Eritrea, which had been established by former colonial powers, would consist of only six provinces when the new constitution, then being drafted, became effective in 1997; the new provinces, the names of which had not been recommended by the US Board on Geographic Names for recognition by the US Government, pending acceptable definition of the boundaries, were: Anseba, Debub, Debubawi Keyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Maakel, and Semanawi Keyih Bahri; more recently, it has been reported that these provinces have been redesignated regions and renamed Southern Red Sea, Northern Red Sea, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Southern, and Central
Age structure 0-14 years: 39.2% (male 2,522,609/female 2,474,131)


15-64 years: 57.1% (male 3,686,354/female 3,592,662)


65 years and over: 3.7% (male 235,478/female 235,756) (2005 est.)
0-14 years:
42.85% (male 922,691; female 918,916)

15-64 years:
53.87% (male 1,147,927; female 1,167,705)

65 years and over:
3.28% (male 71,232; female 69,798) (2001 est.)
Agriculture - products corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, sugarcane, peanuts; sheep, goats, pigs sorghum, lentils, vegetables, corn, cotton, tobacco, coffee, sisal; livestock, goats; fish
Airports 404 (2004 est.) 20 (2000 est.)
Airports - with paved runways total: 17


over 3,047 m: 3


2,438 to 3,047 m: 2


1,524 to 2,437 m: 4


914 to 1,523 m: 8 (2004 est.)
total:
2

over 3,047 m:
1

2,438 to 3,047 m:
1 (2000 est.)
Airports - with unpaved runways total: 387


1,524 to 2,437 m: 5


914 to 1,523 m: 186


under 914 m: 196 (2004 est.)
total:
18

over 3,047 m:
2

2,438 to 3,047 m:
2

1,524 to 2,437 m:
5

914 to 1,523 m:
7

under 914 m:
2 (2000 est.)
Area total: 390,580 sq km


land: 386,670 sq km


water: 3,910 sq km
total:
121,320 sq km

land:
121,320 sq km

water:
0 sq km
Area - comparative slightly larger than Montana slightly larger than Pennsylvania
Background The UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the South Africa Company in 1923. A 1961 constitution was formulated that favored whites in power. In 1965 the government unilaterally declared its independence, but the UK did not recognize the act and demanded more complete voting rights for the black African majority in the country (then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrilla uprising finally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (as Zimbabwe) in 1980. Robert MUGABE, the nation's first prime minister, has been the country's only ruler (as president since 1987) and has dominated the country's political system since independence. His chaotic land redistribution campaign begun in 2000 caused an exodus of white farmers, crippled the economy, and ushered in widespread shortages of basic commodities. Ignoring international condemnation, MUGABE rigged the 2002 presidential election to ensure his reelection. Opposition and labor groups launched general strikes in 2003 to pressure MUGABE to retire early; security forces continued their brutal repression of regime opponents. Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991 with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two and a half year border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN auspices on 12 December 2000.
Birth rate 29.74 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) 42.52 births/1,000 population (2001 est.)
Budget revenues: $1.325 billion


expenditures: $1.593 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.)
revenues:
$283.9 million

expenditures:
$351.6 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
Capital Harare Asmara (formerly Asmera)
Climate tropical; moderated by altitude; rainy season (November to March) hot, dry desert strip along Red Sea coast; cooler and wetter in the central highlands (up to 61 cm of rainfall annually); semiarid in western hills and lowlands; rainfall heaviest during June-September except in coastal desert
Coastline 0 km (landlocked) 2,234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1,151 km, islands in Red Sea 1,083 km
Constitution 21 December 1979 the transitional constitution, decreed on 19 May 1993, was replaced by a new constitution adopted on 23 May 1997, but not yet implemented
Country name conventional long form: Republic of Zimbabwe


conventional short form: Zimbabwe


former: Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia
conventional long form:
State of Eritrea

conventional short form:
Eritrea

local long form:
Hagere Ertra

local short form:
Ertra

former:
Eritrea Autonomous Region in Ethiopia
Currency - nakfa (ERN)
Death rate 24.66 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) 12.07 deaths/1,000 population (2001 est.)
Debt - external $4.086 billion (2004 est.) $281 million (2000 est.)
Diplomatic representation from the US chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph G. SULLIVAN


embassy: 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare


mailing address: P. O. Box 3340, Harare


telephone: [263] (4) 250-593 and 250-594


FAX: [263] (4) 796488
chief of mission:
Ambassador William D. CLARKE

embassy:
Franklin D. Roosevelt Street, Asmara

mailing address:
P. O. Box 211, Asmara

telephone:
[291] (1) 120004

FAX:
[291] (1) 127584
Diplomatic representation in the US chief of mission: Ambassador Simbi Veke MUBAKO


chancery: 1608 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009


telephone: [1] (202) 332-7100


FAX: [1] (202) 483-9326
chief of mission:
Ambassador GIRMA Asmerom

chancery:
1708 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009

telephone:
[1] (202) 319-1991

FAX:
[1] (202) 319-1304
Disputes - international Botswana has built electric fences and South Africa has placed military along the border to stem the flow of thousands of Zimbabweans fleeing to find work and escape political persecution; Namibia has supported and in 2004 Zimbabwe dropped objections to plans between Botswana and Zambia to build a bridge over the Zambezi River, thereby de facto recognizing a short, but not clearly delimited Botswana-Zambia boundary in the river as a result of the 12 December 2000 peace agreement ending a two-year war with Ethiopia, the UN will administer a 25-km wide temporary security zone within Eritrea until a joint boundary commission delimits and demarcates a final boundary
Economic aid - recipient $178 million; note - the EU and the US provide food aid on humanitarian grounds (2000 est.) $77 million (1999)
Economy - overview The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult economic problems as it struggles with an unsustainable fiscal deficit, an overvalued exchange rate, soaring inflation, and bare shelves. Its 1998-2002 involvement in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy. Badly needed support from the IMF has been suspended because of the country's failure to meet budgetary goals. Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to 133% at the end of 2004, while the exchange rate fell from 24 Zimbabwean dollars per US dollar to 6,200 in the same time period. The government's land reform program, characterized by chaos and violence, has badly damaged the commercial farming sector, the traditional source of exports and foreign exchange and the provider of 400,000 jobs. With independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993, Eritrea faced the economic problems of a small, desperately poor country. The economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with 80% of the population involved in farming and herding. The small industrial sector consists mainly of light industries with outmoded technologies. Domestic output (GDP) is substantially augmented by worker remittances from abroad. Government revenues come from custom duties and taxes on income and sales. Road construction is a top domestic priority. In the long term, Eritrea may benefit from the development of offshore oil, offshore fishing, and tourism. Eritrea's economic future depends on its ability to master fundamental social and economic problems, e.g., by reducing illiteracy, promoting job creation, expanding technical training, attracting foreign investment, and streamlining the bureaucracy. Eritrea's agriculture over the last two years was severely weakened by war and drought, and many farmlands must wait to be demined. Another major difficulty is the ports, which prior to the war were Ethiopia's preferred outlets but since have seen trade dry up.
Electricity - consumption 11.22 billion kWh (2002) 153.5 million kWh (1999)
Electricity - exports 0 kWh (2002) 0 kWh NA kWh (1999)
Electricity - imports 3 billion kWh (2002) 0 kWh NA kWh (1999)
Electricity - production 8.839 billion kWh (2002) 165 million kWh (1999)
Electricity - production by source - fossil fuel:
100%

hydro:
0%

nuclear:
0%

other:
0% (1999)
Elevation extremes lowest point: junction of the Runde and Save rivers 162 m


highest point: Inyangani 2,592 m
lowest point:
near Kulul within the Denakil depression -75 m

highest point:
Soira 3,018 m
Environment - current issues deforestation; soil erosion; land degradation; air and water pollution; the black rhinoceros herd - once the largest concentration of the species in the world - has been significantly reduced by poaching; poor mining practices have led to toxic waste and heavy metal pollution deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare
Environment - international agreements party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection


signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
party to:
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species

signed, but not ratified:
none of the selected agreements
Ethnic groups African 98% (Shona 82%, Ndebele 14%, other 2%), mixed and Asian 1%, white less than 1% ethnic Tigrinya 50%, Tigre and Kunama 40%, Afar 4%, Saho (Red Sea coast dwellers) 3%
Exchange rates Zimbabwean dollars per US dollar - 4,303.28 (2004), 697.424 (2003), 55.036 (2002), 55.052 (2001), 44.418 (2000)


note: these are official exchange rates, non-official rates vary significantly
nakfa per US dollar = 9.5 (January 2000), 7.6 (January 1999), 7.2 (March 1998 est.)
Executive branch chief of state: Executive President Robert Gabriel MUGABE (since 31 December 1987); Vice President Joyce MUJURU (since 6 December 2004); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government


head of government: Executive President Robert Gabriel MUGABE (since 31 December 1987); Vice President Joyce MUJURU (since 6 December 2004); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government


cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president; responsible to the House of Assembly


elections: presidential candidates nominated with a nomination paper signed by at least 10 registered voters (at least one from each province) and elected by popular vote for a 6-year term; election last held 9-11 March 2002 (next to be held March 2008); co-vice presidents appointed by the president


election results: Robert Gabriel MUGABE reelected president; percent of vote - Robert Gabriel MUGABE 56.2%, Morgan TSVANGIRAI 41.9%
chief of state:
President ISAIAS Afworki (since 8 June 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government and is head of the State Council and National Assembly

head of government:
President ISAIAS Afworki (since 8 June 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government and is head of the State Council and National Assembly

cabinet:
State Council is the collective executive authority

elections:
president elected by the National Assembly; election last held 8 June 1993 (next tentatively scheduled for December 2001)

election results:
ISAIAS Afworki elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - ISAIAS Afworki 95%
Exports NA $26 million (f.o.b., 1999)
Exports - commodities cotton, tobacco, gold, ferroalloys, textiles/clothing livestock, sorghum, textiles, food, small manufactures
Exports - partners South Africa 31.5%, Switzerland 7.4%, UK 7.3%, China 6.1%, Germany 4.3% (2004) Sudan 27.2%, Ethiopia 26.5%, Japan 13.2%, UAE 7.3%, Italy 5.3% (1998)
Fiscal year calendar year calendar year
Flag description seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green with a white isosceles triangle edged in black with its base on the hoist side; a yellow Zimbabwe bird representing the long history of the country is superimposed on a red five-pointed star in the center of the triangle, which symbolizes peace; green symbolizes agriculture, yellow - mineral wealth, red - blood shed to achieve independence, and black stands for the native people red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle
GDP - purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (2000 est.)
GDP - composition by sector agriculture: 18.1%


industry: 24.3%


services: 57.7% (2004 est.)
agriculture:
16%

industry:
27%

services:
57% (2000 est.)
GDP - per capita purchasing power parity - $1,900 (2004 est.) purchasing power parity - $710 (2000 est.)
GDP - real growth rate -8.2% (2004 est.) -1% (2000 est.)
Geographic coordinates 20 00 S, 30 00 E 15 00 N, 39 00 E
Geography - note landlocked; the Zambezi forms a natural riverine boundary with Zambia; in full flood (February-April) the massive Victoria Falls on the river forms the world's largest curtain of falling water strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon de jure independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993
Highways total: 18,338 km


paved: 8,692 km


unpaved: 9,646 km (1999 est.)
total:
3,850 km

paved:
810 km

unpaved:
3,040 km (2000)
Household income or consumption by percentage share lowest 10%: 1.97%


highest 10%: 40.42% (1995)
lowest 10%:
NA%

highest 10%:
NA%
Illicit drugs transit point for African cannabis and South Asian heroin, mandrax, and methamphetamines destined for the South African and European markets -
Imports NA $560 million (c.i.f., 1999)
Imports - commodities machinery and transport equipment, other manufactures, chemicals, fuels machinery, petroleum products, food, manufactured goods
Imports - partners South Africa 46.9%, Botswana 3.6%, UK 3.4% (2004) Italy 17.4%, UAE 16.2%, Germany 5.7%, UK 4.5%, Korea 4.4% (1998)
Independence 18 April 1980 (from UK) 24 May 1993 (from Ethiopia)
Industrial production growth rate -7.8% (2004 est.) NA%
Industries mining (coal, gold, platinum, copper, nickel, tin, clay, numerous metallic and nonmetallic ores), steel, wood products, cement, chemicals, fertilizer, clothing and footwear, foodstuffs, beverages food processing, beverages, clothing and textiles
Infant mortality rate total: 67.69 deaths/1,000 live births


male: 70.32 deaths/1,000 live births


female: 64.98 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
75.14 deaths/1,000 live births (2001 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices) 133% (2004 est.) 14% (2000 est.)
International organization participation ACP, AfDB, AU, FAO, G-15, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OPCW, PCA, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) - 4 (2000)
Irrigated land 1,170 sq km (1998 est.) 280 sq km (1993 est.)
Judicial branch Supreme Court; High Court Supreme Court; 10 provincial courts; 29 district courts
Labor force 4.23 million (2004 est.) NA
Labor force - by occupation agriculture 66%, industry 10%, services 24% (1996) agriculture 80%, industry and services 20%
Land boundaries total: 3,066 km


border countries: Botswana 813 km, Mozambique 1,231 km, South Africa 225 km, Zambia 797 km
total:
1,630 km

border countries:
Djibouti 113 km, Ethiopia 912 km, Sudan 605 km
Land use arable land: 8.32%


permanent crops: 0.34%


other: 91.34% (2001)
arable land:
12%

permanent crops:
1%

permanent pastures:
49%

forests and woodland:
6%

other:
32% (1998 est.)
Languages English (official), Shona, Sindebele (the language of the Ndebele, sometimes called Ndebele), numerous but minor tribal dialects Afar, Amharic, Arabic, Tigre and Kunama, Tigrinya, other Cushitic languages
Legal system mixture of Roman-Dutch and English common law operates on the basis of transitional laws that incorporate pre-independence statutes of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, revised Ethiopian laws, customary laws, and post independence enacted laws
Legislative branch unicameral House of Assembly (150 seats - 120 elected by popular vote for five-year terms, 12 nominated by the president, 10 occupied by traditional chiefs chosen by their peers, and 8 occupied by provincial governors appointed by the president)


elections: last held 31 March 2005 (next to be held NA 2010)


election results: percent of vote by party - ZANU-PF 59.6%, MDC 39.5%, other 0.9%; seats by party - ZANU-PF 78, MDC 41, Independents 1
unicameral National Assembly (150 seats; term limits not established)

elections:
in May 1997, following the adoption of the new constitution, 75 members of the PFDJ Central Committee (the old Central Committee of the EPLF), 60 members of the 527-member Constituent Assembly which had been established in 1997 to discuss and ratify the new constitution, and 15 representatives of Eritreans living abroad were formed into a Transitional National Assembly to serve as the country's legislative body until country-wide elections to a National Assembly are held; only 75 members will be elected to the National Assembly - the other 75 will be members of the Central Committee of the PFDJ; parliamentary elections are now scheduled for NA December 2001
Life expectancy at birth total population: 39.13 years


male: 40.2 years


female: 38.03 years (2005 est.)
total population:
56.18 years

male:
53.73 years

female:
58.71 years (2001 est.)
Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write English


total population: 90.7%


male: 94.2%


female: 87.2% (2003 est.)
definition:
NA

total population:
25%

male:
NA%

female:
NA%
Location Southern Africa, between South Africa and Zambia Eastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Djibouti and Sudan
Map references Africa Africa
Maritime claims none (landlocked) territorial sea:
12 NM
Merchant marine - total:
5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,069 GRT/19,549 DWT

ships by type:
bulk 1, cargo 1, liquefied gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll on/roll off 1 (2000 est.)
Military branches Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF): Zimbabwe National Army, Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ), Zimbabwe Republic Police (2005) Army, Navy, Air Force
Military expenditures - dollar figure $217 million (2004) $160 million (2000 est.)
Military expenditures - percent of GDP 4.3% (2004) 29.4% (2000 est.)
National holiday Independence Day, 18 April (1980) Independence Day, 24 May (1993)
Nationality noun: Zimbabwean(s)


adjective: Zimbabwean
noun:
Eritrean(s)

adjective:
Eritrean
Natural hazards recurring droughts; floods and severe storms are rare frequent droughts; locust swarms
Natural resources coal, chromium ore, asbestos, gold, nickel, copper, iron ore, vanadium, lithium, tin, platinum group metals gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, possibly oil and natural gas, fish
Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population negligible migrant(s)/1,000 population


note: there is an increasing flow of Zimbabweans into South Africa and Botswana in search of better economic opportunities (2005 est.)
7.91 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2001 est.)

note:
according to the UNHCR, about 150,000 Eritrean refugees in Sudan have registered for voluntary repatriation, following the restoration of diplomatic relations between Eritrea and Sudan in January 2000
Pipelines refined products 261 km (2004) -
Political parties and leaders Movement for Democratic Change or MDC [Morgan TSVANGIRAI]; National Alliance for Good Governance or NAGG [Shakespeare MAYA]; United Parties [Abel MUZOREWA]; Zimbabwe African National Union-Ndonga or ZANU-Ndonga [Wilson KUMBULA]; Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front or ZANU-PF [Robert Gabriel MUGABE]; Zimbabwe African Peoples Union or ZAPU [Agrippa MADLELA] People's Front for Democracy and Justice or PFDJ, the only party recognized by the government [ISAIAS Afworki, PETROS Solomon]; note - the National Assembly has appointed a committee to draft a law on political parties
Political pressure groups and leaders National Constitutional Assembly or NCA [Lovemore MADHUKU]; Crisis in Zimbabwe Coalition [Brian KAGORO]; Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions or ZCTU [Lovemore MATOMBO] Eritrean Islamic Jihad or EIJ; Eritrean Liberation Front or ELF [ABDULLAH Muhammed]; Eritrean Liberation Front-Revolutionary Council or ELF-RC [Ahmed NASSER]; Eritrean Liberation Front-United Organization or ELF-UO [Mohammed Said NAWD]
Population 12,746,990


note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)
4,298,269 (July 2001 est.)
Population below poverty line 70% (2002 est.) NA%
Population growth rate 0.51% (2005 est.) 3.84% (2001 est.)
Ports and harbors Binga, Kariba Assab (Aseb), Massawa (Mits'iwa)
Radio broadcast stations AM 7, FM 20 (plus 17 repeater stations), shortwave 1 (1998) AM 2, FM 1, shortwave 2 (2000)
Radios - 345,000 (1997)
Railways total: 3,077 km


narrow gauge: 3,077 km 1.067-m gauge (313 km electrified) (2004)
total:
317 km

narrow gauge:
317 km 0.950-m gauge (1999)

note:
links Ak'ordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; nonoperational since 1978 except for about a 5 km stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994; rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock is under way
Religions syncretic (part Christian, part indigenous beliefs) 50%, Christian 25%, indigenous beliefs 24%, Muslim and other 1% Muslim, Coptic Christian, Roman Catholic, Protestant
Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female


under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female


15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female


65 years and over: 1 male(s)/female


total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
at birth:
1.03 male(s)/female

under 15 years:
1 male(s)/female

15-64 years:
0.98 male(s)/female

65 years and over:
1.02 male(s)/female

total population:
0.99 male(s)/female (2001 est.)
Suffrage 18 years of age; universal 18 years of age; universal
Telephone system general assessment: system was once one of the best in Africa, but now suffers from poor maintenance; more than 100,000 outstanding requests for connection despite an equally large number of installed but unused main lines


domestic: consists of microwave radio relay links, open-wire lines, radiotelephone communication stations, fixed wireless local loop installations, and a substantial mobile cellular network; Internet connection is available in Harare and planned for all major towns and for some of the smaller ones


international: country code - 263; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat; two international digital gateway exchanges (in Harare and Gweru)
general assessment:
NA

domestic:
very inadequate; most telephones are in Asmara; government is seeking international tenders to improve the system

international:
NA
Telephones - main lines in use 300,900 (2003) 23,578 (2000)
Telephones - mobile cellular 379,100 (2003) NA
Television broadcast stations 16 (1997) 1 (2000)
Terrain mostly high plateau with higher central plateau (high veld); mountains in east dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains
Total fertility rate 3.54 children born/woman (2005 est.) 5.87 children born/woman (2001 est.)
Unemployment rate 70% (2002 est.) NA%
Waterways on Lake Kariba, length small (2003) none
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